education cheat termpapers

Memeber Login Password

Ondix Content Search

Title or Description

Subject

School

Teacher

Display Results Per Page

10 20 50 100

Standardization of the English Language

Standardization of the English Language

There are several important events before 1500 that when listed together show a
series of steps in the struggle for English language supremacy. These steps are
mainly governmental, legal and official events that pushed English usage. In
1356 The Sheriff's Court in London and Middlesex were conducted in English for
the first time. When Parliament opened in 1362 the Statute of Pleading was
issued declaring English as a language of the courts as well as of Parliament,
but it was not until 1413 that English became the official language of the
courts everywhere. Thirteen years later in 1423, Parliament records start being
written in English. 1400 marks date that English is used in writing wills, a
seemingly small step, but one that impacted many people and began a legacy of
record keeping in English. In 1450 English became the language used in writing
town laws and finally 1489 saw all statutes written in English. But it was not
until 1649 that English became the language of legal documents in place of Latin.

The formal rules intended to keep the use of French in official capacities were
not enough to combat the effects of the Black Death and the Hundred Years War
between France and England, which both contributed greatly to the rise of
English and fall of French. By the fourteenth century, English was again known
by most people, although French was not forgotten, and the people who spoke
French were generally bilingual. The Statute of Pleading made it law that
English and not French would be used in the courts. However, it needs to be
emphasized that at the end of this statement, it says that after the pleadings,
debates, etc. in English were finished, they should be entered and enrolled in
Latin. English became the official language of the court in 1413, but French was
permitted until the eighteenth century.

More than the official bureaucratic changes in rules and law were the changes in
the use of the language by the everyday speakers. The changes that distinguish
Early Modern English from Middle English are substantial. The rules for spelling
were set down for the first time. The key is the new consistency used by
teachers, printers and eventually by the general populace. The sign of maturity
for English was the agreement on one set of rules replacing the spelling free-
for-all that had existed.

Out of the variety of local dialects there emerged toward the end of the
fourteenth century a written language that in course of the fifteenth century
won general recognition and has since become the recognized standard in speech
and writing. The part of England that contributed most to the formation of this
standard was the East Midland type of English that became itst basis,
particularly the dialect of the metropolis, London. East Midland district was
the largest and most populous of the major dialect areas. There were also two
universities, Oxford and Cambridge. In the fourteenth century the monasteries
were playing a less important role in the spread of learning than they had once
played, while the two universities had developed into important intellectual
centers. So far as Cmbridge is concerned any ist influence was exerted in
support of the East Midland dialect. That of Oxford is less certain because
Oxfordshire was on the border between Midland and Southern and its dialect
shows certain characteristic Southern features.

Written London English of the close of the fourteenth century as used by a
number of Middle English authors, such as John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer, had
not achived the status of a regional standard but was soon to become the basis
for a new national literary standard of English. It was the language of the
capital. Geographically, it occupied a position midway between the extreme North
and the extreme South. Already by 1430, this new standard had assumed a
relatively mature form. It was spread throughout England by professional clerks
in the administrative apparatus of the country and also became the model for
business aand pri-vate correspondence in English. It was this Chancery standard,
the normal language for all official written communication by the time when
Caxton set up his Printing Press in West-minster (1476), which became the direct
ancestor of Modern Standard English. As a result of this developments, the use
of regional dialects in writing receded more and more in the course of the
fifteenth century until, in the Early Modern English period, writing came to be
exclusively done in the standard literary language.

The language of Chaucer's late fourteenth century and of the fifteenth were
often describe as Late Middle English. It could as well be called Early Modern
English. Ich and I ran side by side in Chaucer's language, and the distinction
between ye and you was still that of nomina-tive versus accusative. Northern
they had replaced the earlier Anglo-Saxon hie, but hem was still alive. Such
became the preferred Chancery form which had ousted sich, sych, seche and swiche.
Which was replacing wich. The auxiliary verbs appear more regularly in their
modern forms: can, could, shall, should and would. A standardised spelling was
developing which was divorced from the phonetic environment so that sound and
spelling were becoming two separete systems.

An important linguistic change was also in syntax. Syntax governs the structure
of a sentence as well as the structure of verbs. Auxiliary verbs came into use,
for example the use of do and have which extended the capability of expression
for verbs. The subtle differences between I walk, I do walk, and I am walking
are not available in many other languages. This improvement assisted English in
differentiating itself from other languages. The use of do as a "helping" verb
led the way for a host of other helping verbs: be, have, can, may, will and so
forth. This significant innovation set in motion a new way for verbs to be used.

English now uses subject-verb-object (SVO), which was not always true, nor must
it be true. Other languages use SOV and some do not require a particular order.
These languages use words such as particles, case endings or emphasis for order
selection criteria. In the year 1000, the beginning of the Middle English period,
the direct object appeared before the verb in 52% of the sentences. By 1500, it
appeared before the verb in only 2% of the sentences. The biggest change was
between 1300 (40%) and 1400 (14%). The result is that today we use the sentence
order established at that time. The important point was the establishment of
the convention of word order that helped to structure the language for general
use. The significant change in English sentences was the level of complexity
with new structures to support it. Science did not so much create the complexity,
but rather used the available capability.

The changes in grammar during the early modern period were more far reaching the
examples given. In fact, they were so far reaching that the grammar of English
has changed very little since then. What changes have happened have been slight,
gradual and not significant. The English language experienced a major upheaval
in grammar followed by a stability for many centuries. The changes were
fundamental and powerful enough to sustain tremendous change in science,
literature, technology and all other facets of human existence. Besides grammar,
an unusual change in the 1300s occurred called the Great Vowel Shift. For no
obvious reason the pronunciation of most vowels changed. There is a clear
pattern of how they shifted, but not why. There is also no clear benefit to the
language, only that it was part of the overall, dramatic metamorphosis of
English. Every known aspect of the language experienced change and growth.

The Great Vowel Shift had also cosiderably increased the discrepancies between
spelling and proununciation. Therefore were the "spelling-reformers" first to
appear on the scene, beginning with a book in Latin by Sir Thomas Smith,
entitled: De recta et emendata Linguae Anglicanae Scriptione (1568). Soon
followed on the same subject by John Hart An Orthographie (1569), William
Bullokar and Richard Mulcaster's book The right writing of our English tung
(1582), Simon Daines Orthoepia Anglicana (1640). However, none of these achived
anything like the stabilizing effect on orthography which ultimately proceeded
from Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language (1755) whose spelling
has become the 'normal' spelling of Present-Day British Standard English.

The orthographical reformers of the seventeenth century were soon joined by
grammarians. Aims at 'regularizing grammar' became more and more pronounced in
the latter part of the seventeenth century and completly dominated grammatical
thinking in the century to follow, and not 'grammatical thinking' in the narrow
sense only. The laying down of rules about acceptable usage was now, and
especially in the latter half of the eighteenth century, extended to all
components of Standard English.

In the latter part of the fifteenth century the London standard had been
accepted in most parts of the country. By the middle of the century a fairly
cosistent variety of written English in both spelling and grammar had developed.
With the introdution of printing in 1476 a new influence of great importance in
the spread of London English came into play. From the beginning London has been
the centre of book publishing in England. Caxton the first English printer, used
the current speech of London in his numerous translations, and the books the
issued from his press and from the presses of his successors gave a currency to
London English that assured more than anything else its rapid adoption. In the
sixteenth century the use of London English had become a matter of precept as
well as practice.

From the time of Caxton on, English is not merely a series of related oral
dialects, which are occasionaly written. It is a fully developed cultural tongue,
the equal, in its own fashion, of the Latin and Greek of Classical antiquity. It
is a language with a numerous body of unified speakers and writers, a language
with a vast potential and actual market. The modern English that emerges from
the era of Chaucer and Caxton is a tongue that still possesses vast
possibilities of change, channeled in the direction of vocabulary rather than of
sounds or grammatical structure.

Bibliography

1. Baugh, A. and Cable Thomas, A History of the English Language ( London, 1978
)

2. Berndt, Rolf, History of the English Language ( Leipzig, 1982 )

3. Blake, Norman, The Cambridge History of the English Language ( Cambridge,
1992 )

4. Burnley, David, The Language of Chaucer ( London, 1989 )

5. Pei, Mario, The Story of the English Language ( New York, 1967 )

6. Strang, Barbara, A History of English ( London, 1970 )

!

0

Other Keywords:
A Midsummer's Night Dream, Uncle Tom's Cabin, A Streetcar Named Desire, Invisible Man, A Tale of Two Cities, Absalom Absalom, Achilles, Huckleberry Finn, Adam Smith, Aeneid, Shakespeare, Agamemnon, Twain, Albert Camus, Oedipus Trilogy, Albert Einstein, Odyssey, Alchemist, Alexander Pope, Theodore Dreiser, Great Gatsby, Alfred Hitchcock, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Alice in Wonderland, Alice Walker, Dante Alighieri, All Quiet on the Western Front, Slavery, All the King's Men, William Wordsworth, All the Pretty Horses, Allen Ginsberg, America, American Revolution, Ralph Ellison, American Tragedy, Society, Washington Irving, Amis, Amy Lowell, Ancient Empire, Sonnets, King Lear, Ancient Empire, Angelou, Sonny's Blues, Animal Farm, William Shakespeare, Anna Karenina, Anne Frank, Anne of Green Gables, Anne Sexton, Antigone, Anton Chekov, Antony and Cleopatra, Aphra Behn, Apology, Aristotle, Aristotle's Ethics, Art of War, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Arthur Miller, Arthur's Court, Samuel Taylor Coelridge, Artist, As I Lay Dying, Atlas, Atomic Bomb, Austen, Autobiography of Malcolm X, Awakening, Aztecs, Bacon, Barn Burning, Raymond Carver, Bartleby the Scrivener Battle of Bean Tree theses Silas Beatrix Potter Beloved Ben Jonson Nathaniel Hawthorne Benito Cereno, Benjamin Franklin, Beowulf, Berkeley, Berlin, Beth Norton, Billy Budd, bin Laden, Black Boy, Sylvia Plath, Black Cat, Black Like Me, Black Studies, Blake, Bleak House, Albert Einstein, Bless Me Ultima, Bluest Eye, White Fang, book report, books, Stephen Crane, Brave New World, Braveheart William Butler Yeats British Brown C. S. Lewis Robert Frost Caesar Caged Bird Sings Salman Rushdie Samuel Beckett Call of the Wild Camus Candide Yellow Wall Paper, student, Canterbury Tales, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Captain, Carew, Carl Sandburg, Raisin in the Sun, Carlos Williams, Catch 22, Catcher in the Rye, Catcher, Ceasar, Young, Zora Neal Hurston, Century, Franz Kafka, Slaves, character analysis, Charles Dickens, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, William Blake, Charlotte, Chaucer esays Chocolate War Chopin Christopher Marlowe Wife of Bath Chrysalids Chrysanthemums Churchil Claude McKay Cold War college, Wuthering Heights, Colonial, Comedy of Errors, Scarlett Letter, Comedy, Community policing, Community, Tess, Testament, Conan Doyle, Connecticut Yankee, Conrad, Sinclair Lewis, Cottage, Count of Monte Cristo, Crane, Creon, Crime and Punishment, Crime Crito Crowe Ransom Cry the Beloved Country CS Lewis Cuckoo's Nest Susan Glaspell Culture Curse D. H. Lawrence Dante Alighieri, Dante, David Copperfield, Dean Howells, Death of a Salesman, Death, Arthur Miller, Declaration of Independence, Descartes, DH, Diary of Anne Frank, Dickenson, Dickinson, Dimmesdale, dissertation, Divine Comedy, Doctor Faustus, Jonathan Swift, Doctor Seuss, document, Doll's House, thesis, Don Juan, Don Quijote Donne Dorian Gray Dostoevsky Douglas papers Sir Gaiwan Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Dracula Glass Menagerie Sherlocke Holmes dream dreams Dryden, Dubus, DUrbervilles, Dying, Dylan Thomas, E. A. Poe, Shakespeare's Comedies, E. M. Forester, E.E. Cummings, Moby, Economics, Edgar Allen Poe, essay, Edith Wharton, Edmund Spenser, Electra, Elektra, Eliot, Elitism, Elizabeth Barret Browning Elizabeth Bishop Elliot Ellison Emancipation Emerson Emily Dickinson Scarlet Emily Dante Alighieri Vergil Emma Tale, Emperor Jones, Enemy of the People, English research, Enlightenment, Eodipus, Equus, Erich Remarque, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest, Erye, esay, C.S. Lewis, Euclid, Eugene O'Neill, Eumenides, European, Euthyphro, exam, existence, Exit to Eden, Eyre, Ezra Pound F. Scott Fitzgerald Fahrenheit 451 Fahrenheit Farewell to Arms Farewell to Manzanar book reports Farewell Faulkner Faust Walt Whitman Fenimore Cooper Fiction Fires of Jubilee Fitzgerald, Flann O'Brien, For Whom the Bell Tolls, Forest, Francis Bacon, Street car, Francis Scott Key, Frankenstein, Sarah Orne Jewett, Franz Kafka, Frederick, free essays, Freedom, French Lieutenant's Woman, Freud's dreams, Frey, Frost, Fuentes, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Gaiwan, Voltaire, Gatsby, Caeser, Gentleman, Geoffery Chaucer, George Bernard Shaw, George Eliot, George Orwell, German Germany Dorian Grey Gertrude Stein Ghosts termpapers, Gilgamesh Glass Menagerie Go Down Moses God exist God Goddess essays, Elizabeth Barret Browning termpaper Godfather Good Earth, Goodman, Gorbachev, Gore Vidal, Granny Weatherall, Grapes, Great Expectations, Great Gatsby, William James, Greek Mythology, Greek, Green, Greenleaf Whittier, Gulliver's Travels, Hairy Ape, Hamlet, Hans Christian Anderson, Hard Times, Virginia Woolf, Harriet Beacher Stowe, Odyssy, Harriet Jacobs, Hart, Hawthorne, essays about, Heart of Darkness, Heart Hedda Gabler Hemingway Hemingway's Short Stories Henrik Ibsen Anton Chekov Henry David Thoreau Henry IV Henry James Miller Henry V Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Henry Society Herman Melville Hermann Hesse Hester Prynne, Hippolytus, History, Hitler, Rudyard Kipling, Hobbit, Homer, Horse, Huck Finn, Hyde, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Ibsen, Iliad, imagery, Oedipus, Immanuel Kant, Immigration, Imperialism, Incas, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Inferno, Inherit the Wind, Shakespeare's Plays, Invisible Man, Issac Newton, Ivan Ilyitch, J. D. Salinger, J. R. R. Tolkien, J.D. Salinger, Catch-22, Jack London, Jack Schaefer, Jackal James Baldwin James Fenimore Cooper James Joyce James Thurber Jane Austen Jane Eyre Jane Jean Jacques Rousseau Jean Louis Jack Kerouac Jean Toomer Jean-Paul Sartre Jekyl, Jewish, Jimmy Hendryx, Uncle, John Donne, John Dryden, Greenleaf Whittier, Wuthering, Grisham, John Keats, John Locke, John Milton, John Steinbeck, John Updike, Sir Gawain, Johnathan Swift, T. S. Elliot, Joseph Conrad William Faulkner student Joy Luck Club Joyce Carol Oates Joyce Jubilee Juliet Julius Caesar Julius Jungle Book Willa Cather Kafka Kate Chopin Katherine Anne Porter Keats Shelley Kill Killer Angels King Arthur King Arthur's Court King Lear King, Knight, Kurt Vonnegut, Shakespeare's Tragedies, Don Quixote, Labor, Walden, Lady Macbeth, Lancelot, Langston Hughes, Last of the Mohicans, Lazarus, Lear, free essays, Leaves, Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Leo Tolstoy, Les Miserables, Tony Morrison, Lesson Before Dying, Lesson, Letter, T.S. Eliot, Lewis Carroll, Students, library, Life of Frederick Douglas, Light in August, Light, Literature, Little Women, Lord of the Flies, Lord of the Rings, Lord Tennyson, Lord, Lost, Louis Aragon, Lovelace Love's Labour's Lost Lowell Macbeth macroeconomics microeconomics Madame Bovary Main Street Makepeace Thackery Malcolm X Mallory Maltese Falcon Mann Manzanar Margaret Atwood Mark Twain Marlowe Marner Martian Chronicles Martin Luther King Mary Shelly Mary Shelly's Frankenstein Masque of the Red Death Matthew Arnold Maya Angelou Maya Mayans, Mayor of Casterbridge, Mcbeth, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, McKay, Measure for Measure, Melville, men, Menagerie, Merchant, Merry Wives of Windsor, Toni, Metamorphosis, Mice, Gaiwan, Drayton, Midsummer's Night Dream, night's midterm, Miguel de Cervantes, Milton, Moby Dick, Mockingbird, Mohicans, Monte, Moon, Moore, Morrison, Mortal Moses Mourning Becomes Electra Movement Much Ado about Nothing Muir My Antonia Mythology Nabokov Named Desire Narrative Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas Nashe Nathaniel Hawthorne essays on Native American Native Son Native New Testament Newton Night, Norman Mailer, Odysey, Geoffrey Chaucer, Oedipus destiny, Of Mice and Men, Okri, Old Man and the Sea, Erich Remarque, Old Testament, Oliver Twist, Wendell Holmes, Oliver, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Oscar Wilde, Othello, Outsiders, Ovid, book, Ovidius, Ox-Bow Incident, paper, Paradise, Parliament, Peace, Pearl, Penn Warren, Pepys, essays on Pericles Phaedo Phillis Wheatley Pickwick Picture of Dorian Gray Picture Pigs Pilgrims Plague D.H. Lawrence Plath Plato Plato's Republic Poe Poem Poe's Short Stories Poet Political, Politics, Pope, Shakespeare Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, John Updike, Portrait, Prejudice, Pride and Prejudice, Pride, Prince and the Pauper, Prince, Proclamation, Prologue, Vladimir Nabokov, Punishment, Pushkin, Quixote, Rainman, Raisin in the Sun, Raleigh, Ralph Ellison, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Raven Raymond Carver Edith Wharton Red Badge of Courage reference Religion Rene Descartes report Republic research paper Return of the Native Revolution Richard II Mary Shelly Richard III Richard Wright, Richard, Rings, Rise of Silas Lapham, Rivals, Robert Browning, Robert Frost, Oedipus fate, George Orwell, Robert Lowell, Homer, Robinson Crusoe, Great Expectations, Jeffers, Rocking Horse Winner, Roger Chillingworth, Romeo and Juliet, Poems, Romeo, Rudyard Kipling, Russia, Rye, sale, Salesman, Salinger, Salman Rushdie, Samuel Beckett, J.R.R. Tolkien, Samuel Clemens, Samuel Johnson, Samuel Taylor Coelridge, Sandburg, Sappho, Sarah Orne Jewett, Saroyan, Sartre, Satan Sawyer Leo Tolstoy Scarlet Letter Schaefer school Science Screw Sea Seamus Heaney Thomas Hobbes Secret Sharer Secret Self reliance Hawthorn Self Huckleberry Oedipus Rex, Self-reliance, sell, Sense and Sensibility, Separate Peace, Ovid, Separate, Sexton, Shadows, Shakespear, Dylan Thomas, essays on, Sharer, Sherlock, E. E. Cummings, Shooting an Elephant, Shrew, Siddhartha, Silas Marner, Sinclair Lewis, Sir Frances Bacon, Henrik Ibsen, Sir Issac Newton, John Locke, Sir Lancelot, free research papers, Sir Thomas More, Douglass, Sir Walter Scott, Skelton, Slave Sleepy Hollow image Snow Falling on Cedars Kurt Vonnegut Social Hierarchy Society Socrates John Keats, Solomon, Son, Albert Camus, Song of Solomon, Song, Sonnet, Oedipus the King, Flann O'Brien Sonny's Blues Sophocles Sophomore Sound and the Fury Soviet Union Spirit, Stalin, Star Wars, Stein, Cuckoo's Nest, Steinbeck, Stephen Crane, Stephen King, Zora Neale Hurston Steppenwolf Storm Stranger Streetcar Named Desire Jonathan Swift Students, Sula, Sun Also Rises, Jack London, Poe, Sun Tzu, Sun, Survival, Susan Glaspell, Swift, Sylvia Plath Sylvia Symbol Symbolism T. S. Eliot Tale of Two Cities Tales, Illiad, Taming of the Shrew, Tempest, Tender Mercies, Tennessee Williams, term paper, terrorism essays, Thomas Hardy, Tess D'Urbervilles, Testament, essays over, The Awakening, The Bear Bell Jar The Canterbury Tales Cask of Amontillado John Milton The Color Purple The Count of Monte Cristo, The Crucible, Ralph Elison, The Dead, Death of Ivan Ilyitch, Giver, The Grapes of Wrath, Great Awakening, Henry James, The Great Gatsby, Jilting of Granny Weatherall, The Jungle, Mayor of Casterbridge Paradise Lost The Merchant of Venice Mohicans The Prince The Scarlet Letter The Things They Carried, Their Eyes Were Watching God, Shakespeare, Theodore Dreiser, thesis, JRR Tolkien, Eugene O'Neill, Things Fall Apart, Third Reich F. Scott Fitzgerald Thomas Hardy Thomas Hobbes Thomas More Gatsby Thomas Wolfe Thoreau, Thorne, Thornton Wilder, Thurber, To Kill a Mockingbird, To the Lighthouse, Tolkien, Jubilee, Tom Jones, Tom Sawyer, Toni Morrison, Toomer, Transcendentalism Treasure Island Phillis Wheatley Treaty Versailles Trees Trial Trifles Truman research papers, Turn of the Screw, Twain, term papers, Twelfth Night, Miguel de Cervantes, Tess of D'Urbervilles, Twelve Angry Men, Twist, Louis Aragon, Two Gentlemen of Verona, Sun Tzu, Uncle Tom's Cabin, Julius Caesar, Midsummer Night's Dream, university Upton Sinclair Utopia Ezra Pound Vanity Fair Oedipus tragedy Vaughan Venice Vergil, essays, Verona, Vicar of Wakefield., Virgil, E.M. Forester, Virginia Woolf, Vladimir Nabokov, Voltaire, Vonnegut, Walden Two, Wallace Stevens, Wallpaper, Walt Whitman, Walter Raleigh, Joseph Conrad, Washington Irving Weatherall Weldon When the Caged Bird Sings White Fang White Whitman Wicked Wife of Bath Wife Wild Duck, Willa Cather, Seamus Heaney, Invisible, Dissertations, William Blake, Jekyll, William Butler Yeats, Robert Browning, William Dean Howells, Samuel Langhorne Clemens, William Faulkner, Moby Dick, William Golding, William James, Thesis Statements, Benjamin Franklin, William Shakespeare, Menagerie, William Wordsworth essays Williams Winston Churchill Wiseblood Wolfe Sidhartha Women Woodrow Wilson Wordsworth John Donne World War I, Nathaniel Hawthorne, World War II, Tennessee Williams, World, reports, Wrath, Henry David Thoreau, Wright, write, Wuthering Heights, slave narrative, Dante's Inferno, Dante's Purgatory, Edmund Spenser, WWI, Joyce Carol Oates, Herman Melville, WWII, Yeats, Oscar Wilde, Shakespeare's Sonnets, Yellow Wallpaper, Harriet Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Young Goodman Brown, Harriet Beecher Stowe